Coral Reefs

Article	Citations
Host genotype and stable differences in algal symbiont communities explain patterns of thermal stress response of Montipora capitata following thermal pre-exposure and across multiple bleaching events	47
The biology and ecology of coral rubble and implications for the future of coral reefs	46
Ecological consequences of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease in the Turks and Caicos Islands	42
Empirically derived thermal thresholds of four coral species along the Red Sea using a portable and standardized experimental approach	33
Symbiont shuffling across environmental gradients aligns with changes in carbon uptake and translocation in the reef-building coral Pocillopora acuta	30
Structure-from-Motion on shallow reefs and beaches: potential and limitations of consumer-grade drones to reconstruct topography and bathymetry	30
Mono- and multispecies biofilms from a crustose coralline alga induce settlement in the scleractinian coral Leptastrea purpurea	25
Diversity, distribution, and environmental drivers of coralline red algae: the major reef builders in the Southwestern Atlantic	24
Upper-mesophotic and shallow reef corals exhibit similar thermal tolerance, sensitivity and optima	23
Pre-exposure to a variable temperature treatment improves the response of Acropora cervicornis to acute thermal stress	23
Physiological and ecological consequences of the water optical properties degradation on reef corals	22
Putting sea cucumbers on the map: projected holothurian bioturbation rates on a coral reef scale	22
Implications of 2D versus 3D surveys to measure the abundance and composition of benthic coral reef communities	22
Unusual shallow water Devonian coral community from Queensland and its recent analogues from the inshore Great Barrier Reef	21
Multiple techniques point to oxygenic phototrophs dominating the Isopora palifera skeletal microbiome	21
Growth impacts in a changing ocean: insights from two coral reef fishes in an extreme environment	20
Different responses of scleractinian coral Acropora pruinosa from Weizhou Island during extreme high temperature events	20
Niche differences in co-occurring cryptic coral species (Pocillopora spp.)	20
No evidence for tropicalization of coral assemblages in a subtropical climate change hot spot	19
Mapping cold-water coral biomass: an approach to derive ecosystem functions	19
The mass coral bleaching event of inshore corals form South China Sea witnessed in 2020: insight into the causes, process and consequence	19
Linking population size structure, heat stress and bleaching responses in a subtropical endemic coral	19
Tissue fusion and enhanced genotypic diversity support the survival of Pocillopora acuta coral recruits under thermal stress	17
Unveiling hidden sponge biodiversity within the Hawaiian reef cryptofauna	17
Lack of evidence for the oxidative stress theory of bleaching in the sea anemone, Exaiptasia diaphana, under elevated temperature	17

Shifts in marine invertebrate bacterial assemblages associated with tissue necrosis during a heat wave	16
The role of predators in coral disease dynamics	16
Fine-scale heterogeneity reveals disproportionate thermal stress and coral mortality in thermally variable reef habitats during a marine heatwave	16
Neighboring colonies influence uptake of thermotolerant endosymbionts in threatened Caribbean coral recruits	15
How Symbiodiniaceae meets the challenges of life during coral bleaching	15
The indirect effects of ocean acidification on corals and coral communities	15
Effects of thermal conditioning on the performance of Pocillopora acuta adult coral colonies and their offspring	15
Reef location has a greater impact than coral bleaching severity on the microbiome of Pocillopora acuta	14
Application of phylogenomic tools to unravel anthozoan evolution	14
Crystallographic and chemical signatures in coral skeletal aragonite	14
Comparative phylogeography of reef fishes indicates seamounts as stepping stones for dispersal and diversification	14
Wave exposure shapes reef community composition and recovery trajectories at a remote coral atoll	14
Coral reef resilience differs among islands within the Gulf of Mannar, southeast India, following successive coral bleaching events	13
Thermal history influences lesion recovery of the threatened Caribbean staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis under heat stress	13
Photo-movement of coral larvae influences vertical positioning in the ocean	13
Impact of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) enrichment and skewed N:P stoichiometry on the skeletal formation and microstructure of symbiotic reef corals	13
Heat stress differentially impacts key calcification mechanisms in reef-building corals	13
Hybridisation and the evolution of coral reef biodiversity	13
Seasonal variation in reef fish assemblages in the environmentally extreme southern Persian/Arabian Gulf	12
Two offshore coral species show greater acclimatization capacity to environmental variation than nearshore counterparts in southern Belize	12
Coral host physiology and symbiont dynamics associated with differential recovery from mass bleaching in an extreme, macro-tidal reef environment in northwest Australia	12
Cryopreservation of sperm from the brain coral Diploria labyrinthiformis as a strategy to face the loss of corals in the Caribbean	12
Species richness and generalists–specialists mosaicism of symbiodiniacean symbionts in corals from Hong Kong revealed by high-throughput ITS sequencing	12
Cryopreservation can assist gene flow on the Great Barrier Reef	12
Increasing coral calcification in Orbicella faveolata and Pseudodiploria strigosa at Flower Garden Banks, Gulf of Mexico	12
Genome skimming resolves the giant clam (Bivalvia: Cardiidae: Tridacninae) tree of life	12
Is predation of juvenile crown-of-thorns seastars (Acanthaster cf. solaris) by peppermint shrimp (Lysmata vittata) dependent on age, size, or diet?	12
The importance of biophysical context in understanding marine protected area outcomes for coral reef fish populations	12
Towards a trait-based understanding of Symbiodiniaceae nutrient acquisition strategies	12
Physiological seasonality in the symbiont and host of the northern star coral, Astrangia poculata	12
Lipids of Indo-Pacific gorgonian corals are modified under the influence of microbial associations	11
Fine-scale time series surveys reveal new insights into spatio-temporal trends in coral cover (2002–2018), of a coral reef on the Southern Great Barrier Reef	11
Seasonal variation in the lipidome of two species of Millepora hydrocorals from Vietnam coastal waters (the South China Sea)	11
Physiological responses to short-term sediment exposure in adults of the Caribbean coral Montastraea cavernosa and adults and recruits of Porites astreoides	11
The role of corals on the abundance of a fish ectoparasite in the Great Barrier Reef	11
Novel rubble-dwelling predators of herbivorous juvenile crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster sp.)	11
Environmental gradients drive physiological variation in Hawaiian corals	11
High herbivory despite high sediment loads on a fringing coral reef	11
The mycobiome of Pocillopora acuta in Singapore	11
Nitrogen enrichment in macroalgae following mass coral mortality	11
Physiological diversity among sympatric, conspecific endosymbionts of coral (Cladocopium C1acro) from the Great Barrier Reef	11
Diversification and distribution of gall crabs (Brachyura: Cryptochiridae: Opecarcinus) associated with Agariciidae corals	11
Significance of fish–sponge interactions in coral reef ecosystems	11
High diversity, abundance and distinct fish assemblages on submerged coral reef pinnacles compared to shallow emergent reefs	10
Chronic low-level nutrient enrichment benefits coral thermal performance in a fore reef habitat	10
Populations of a widespread hexacoral have trophic plasticity and flexible syntrophic interactions across the Indo-Pacific Ocean	10
The reef building coral Stylophora pistillata uses stored carbohydrates to maintain ATP levels under thermal stress	10
Variation in susceptibility among three Caribbean coral species and their algal symbionts indicates the threatened staghorn coral, Acropora cervicornis, is particularly susceptible to elevated nutrien	10
Developing best practices for the restoration of massive corals and the mitigation of predation impacts: influences of physical protection, colony size, and genotype on outplant mortality	10
Using form II ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase to estimate the phototrophic potentials of Symbiodinium, Cladocopium and Durusdinium in various organs of the fluted giant clam, Tridacna	10

Assessing the relative accuracy of coral heights reconstructed from drones and structure from motion photogrammetry on coral reefs	10
Large-scale biogeographic patterns are reflected in the genetic structure of a broadcast spawning stony coral	10
Monthly progression rates of the coral-killing sponge Terpios hoshinota in Sesoko Island, Okinawa, Japan	10
Complex spatial patterns of genetic differentiation in the Caribbean mustard hill coral Porites astreoides	10
Novel species interactions and environmental conditions reduce foraging competency at the temperate range edge of a range-extending coral reef fish	10
Ocean warming can help zoanthids outcompete branching hydrocorals	9
Latitudinal variation in monthly-scale reproductive synchrony among Acropora coral assemblages in the Indo-Pacific	9
High diversity of benthic cyanobacterial mats on coral reefs of Koh Tao, Gulf of Thailand	9
ITS1 variation among Stichopathes cf. maldivensis (Hexacorallia: Antipatharia) whip black corals unveils conspecificity and population connectivity at local and global scales across the Indo-Pacific	9
Feces consumption by nominally herbivorous fishes in the Caribbean: an underappreciated source of nutrients?	9
Host-specific epibiomes of distinct Acropora cervicornis genotypes persist after field transplantation	9
Climate impacts alter fisheries productivity and turnover on coral reefs	9
Ephemeral hypoxia reduces oxygen consumption in the Caribbean coral Orbicella faveolata	9
Mesophotic coral refuges following multiple disturbances	9
Population genomic structure of the black coral Antipathella subpinnata in Mediterranean Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems	9
Juvenile age and available coral species modulate transition probability from herbivory to corallivory in Acanthaster cf. solaris (Crown-of-Thorns Seastar)	9
Scarus spinus, crustose coralline algae and cyanobacteria: an example of dietary specialization in the parrotfishes	9
Close encounters of the worst kind: reforms needed to curb coral reef damage by recreational divers	9
Population genetic structure of a major reef-building coral species Acropora downingi in northeastern Arabian Peninsula	9
Population genetic structure of the broadcast spawning coral, Montastraea cavernosa, demonstrates refugia potential of upper mesophotic populations in the Florida Keys	9
Strategies for integrating sexually propagated corals into Caribbean reef restoration: experimental results and considerations	9
Natural variability in seawater temperature compromises the metabolic performance of a reef-forming cold-water coral with implications for vulnerability to ongoing global change	9
High-resolution in situ thermal metrics coupled with acute heat stress experiments reveal differential coral bleaching susceptibility	9
Reef complexity influences distribution and habitat choice of the corallivorous seastar Culcita schmideliana in the Maldives	8
Frequent disturbances and chronic pressures constrain stony coral recovery on Florida’s Coral Reef	8
Species-specific elementomes for scleractinian coral hosts and their associated Symbiodiniaceae	8
Mesophotic reefs are not refugia for neither taxonomic nor functional diversity of reef fishes	8
Coral microbiome changes over the day–night cycle	8
Predicting coral metapopulation decline in a changing thermal environment	8
Hidden structural heterogeneity enhances marine hotspots’ biodiversity	8
Distinct lineages and population genomic structure of the coral Pachyseris speciosa in the small equatorial reef system of Singapore	8
Spatio-temporal persistence of scleractinian coral species at Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef	8
Hydrodynamic and atmospheric drivers create distinct thermal environments within a coral reef atoll	8
Thermally tolerant symbionts may explain Caribbean octocoral resilience to heat stress	8
Beyond the Symbiodiniaceae: diversity and role of microeukaryotic coral symbionts	8
Identifying metabolic alterations associated with coral growth anomalies using 1H NMR metabolomics	8
Hydrodynamic interactions with coral topography and its impact on larval settlement	8
Finding signals in the noise of coral recruitment	8
Wild and nursery-raised corals: comparative physiology of two framework coral species	8
The influence of seawater temperature on the timing of coral spawning	7
A functional perspective on the meaning of the term ‘herbivore’: patterns versus processes in coral reef fishes	7
Salinity, not only temperature, drives tropical fish invasions in the Mediterranean Sea, and surface-only variables explain it better	7
The macrofauna associated to the bamboo coral Isidella elongata: to what extent the impact on isideidae affects diversification of deep-sea fauna	7
Algal turf negatively affects recruitment of a Caribbean octocoral	7
Species and spatio-environmental effects on coral endosymbiont communities in Southeast Asia	7
Impacts of nursery-based propagation and out-planting on coral-associated bacterial communities	7
Resolving the interactions of ocean acidification and temperature on coral calcification media pH	7
Conservation status of the southernmost reef of the Amazon Reef System: the Parcel de Manuel Luís	7
Differential responses of bacterial communities in coral tissue and mucus to bleaching	7
The reef-building coral Galaxea fascicularis: a new model system for coral symbiosis research	7
The enhanced expression of heat stress-related genes in scleractinian coral ‘Porites harrisoni’ during warm episodes as an intrinsic mechanism for adaptation in ‘the Persian Gulf’	7
Prevalence and extent of coral diseases in shallow and mesophotic reefs of the Southwestern Atlantic	7
Early successional trajectory of benthic community in an uninhabited reef system three years after mass coral bleaching	7
Bioerosion of reef-building crustose coralline algae by endolithic invertebrates in an upwelling-influenced reef	7
Depth gradients in abundance and functional roles suggest limited depth refuges for herbivorous fishes	7
The contribution of corals to reef structural complexity in Kāne‘ohe Bay	7
Environmental impact on the mechanical properties of Porites spp. corals	7
Plasticity of symbiont acquisition in new recruits of the massive coral Platygyra daedalea under ocean warming and acidification	7
Highly repetitive space-use dynamics in parrotfishes	7
The role of parapodia and lack of photoacclimation in kleptoplasts of the sacoglossan sea slug Plakobranchus ocellatus	7
Sources of variation in community composition of the hindgut microbiota in two tropical Kyphosus species	6
Scleractinian corals rely on heterotrophy in highly turbid environments	6
Impact of cyclones on hard coral and metapopulation structure, connectivity and genetic diversity of coral reef fish	6
Effects of corallivory and coral colony density on coral growth and survival	6
Cultivable bacteria associated with Caribbean octocorals are active against coral pathogens but exhibit variable bioactivity when grown under different temperature conditions	6
Effects of light intensity and spectral composition on the growth and physiological adaptation of Acroporid corals	6
Ocean acidification alters the thermal performance curves of brooded larvae from the reef coral Pocillopora damicornis	6
Ontogenetic habitat shifts in fusiliers (Lutjanidae): evidence from Caesio cuning at Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef	6
Effects of cryopreservation on the ultrastructure of coral larvae	6
A stratified transect approach captures reef complexity with canopy-forming organisms	6
Microhabitats of sharknose goby (Elacatinus evelynae) cleaning stations and their links with cleaning behaviour	6
High spatial resolution photo mosaicking for the monitoring of coralligenous reefs	6
Physiological effects of the lunar cycle on the spawning of a coral reef fish, Abudefduf Vaigiensis: in vivo and in vitro trait	6
Onset of zooplanktivory and optimal water flow rates for prey capture in newly settled polyps of ten Caribbean coral species	6
Population dynamics and genotypic richness of threatened Acropora species and their hybrid in the U.S. Virgin Islands	6
Short-term heat stress assays resolve effects of host strain, repeat stress, and bacterial inoculation on Aiptasia thermal tolerance phenotypes	6
Signaling pathways of heat- and hypersalinity-induced polyp bailout in Pocillopora acuta	6
Fish sounds of photic and mesophotic coral reefs: variation with depth and type of island	6
Resilience of the temperate coral Oculina arbuscula to ocean acidification extends to the physiological level	6
Microbiome signatures in Acropora cervicornis are associated with genotypic resistance to elevated nutrients and heat stress	6

Biotic resistance on coral reefs? Direct and indirect effects of native predators and competitors on invasive lionfish	6
Long-term retention and density-dependent herbivory from Diadema antillarum following translocation onto a reef restoration site	5
Similar thermal breadth of two temperate coral species from the Mediterranean Sea and two tropical coral species from the Great Barrier Reef	5
Benthic assemblages are more predictable than fish assemblages at an island scale	5
Live slow, die old: larval propagation of slow-growing, stress-tolerant corals for reef restoration	5
Storms may disrupt top-down control of algal turf on fringing reefs	5
Inter-island local adaptation in the Galápagos Archipelago: genomics of the Galápagos blue-banded goby, Lythrypnus gilberti	5
Conservation benefits of no-take marine reserves outweigh modest benefits of partially protected areas for targeted coral reef fishes	5
Polyp bailout and reattachment of the abundant Caribbean octocoral Eunicea flexuosa	5
Outplanting of branching Acropora enhances recolonization of a fish species and protects massive corals from predation	5
Ocean temperature, but not acidification, causes sea anemone bleaching under a near-future climate scenario	5
Seasonal shifts in fatty acids and sterols in sponges, corals, and bivalves, in a southern Gulf of Mexico coral reef under river influence	5
Transient demographic approaches can drastically expand the toolbox of coral reef science	5
Exposure to degraded coral habitat depresses oxygen uptake rate during exercise of a juvenile reef fish	5
Comparative analysis of the gut microbiota composition between two sea snakes, Hydrophis curtus, and Hydrophis cyanocinctus	5
Wave exposure and temperature drive coral community structure at regional scale in the Cuban archipelago	5
Effects of elevated temperature on reproduction and larval settlement in Leptastrea purpurea	5
Did the historic overharvesting of sea cucumbers make coral more susceptible to pathogens?	5
Larval thermal conditioning does not improve post-settlement thermal tolerance in the dominant reef-building coral, Montipora capitata	5
Characterization of bacterial community structure in two alcyonacean soft corals (Litophyton sp. and Sinularia sp.) from Chuuk, Micronesia	5
High-resolution observations of submarine groundwater discharge reveal the fine spatial and temporal scales of nutrient exposure on a coral reef: Faga'alu, AS	5
Strong genetic differentiation demarks populations of Favia across biogeographic regions of the Atlantic Ocean	5
Coralline Hills: high complexity reef habitats on seamount summits of the Vitória-Trindade Chain	5
Small coral reef fishes with large ecological footprints	5
DNA metabarcoding confirms primary targets and breadth of diet for coral reef butterflyfishes	5
Genetic structure of Pacific crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster cf. solaris) in southern Japan based on genome-wide RADseq analysis	5
Effect of species, provenance, and coral physiology on the composition of Hawaiian coral-associated microbial communities	5
Distinct coral reef habitat communities characterized by environmental DNA metabarcoding	5
The relative influence of environmental cues on reproductive allocation of a highly iteroparous coral reef fish	5
A phylogenomic examination of Palmyra Atoll’s corallimorpharian invader	5
Temporal changes in the sponge holobiont during the course of infection with Aplysina Red Band Syndrome	4
Different times, similar mechanism? Convergent patterns in light-induced phenotypic plasticity in Devonian and modern corals	4
Long-term demographics of a coral-reef fish: growth, survival and abundance at several spatial scales	4
Pioneer settlement of the cold-water coral Desmophyllum dianthus (Esper, 1794) on plastic	4
Close-range underwater photogrammetry for coral reef ecology: a systematic literature review	4
Heat-evolved microalgal symbionts increase thermal bleaching tolerance of coral juveniles without a trade-off against growth	4
Observations of coral and cryptobenthic sponge fluorescence and recruitment on autonomous reef monitoring structures (ARMS)	4
Biogeography of endosymbionts (Symbiodiniaceae) associated with zoantharian species (Hexacorallia: Anthozoa) from the Macaronesia and Cape Verde ecoregions	4
Trait-based approach reveals how marginal reefs respond to acute and chronic disturbance	4
Living on the edge: environmental variability of a shallow late Holocene cold-water coral mound	4
Substratum selection in coral reef sponges and their interactions with other benthic organisms	4
Endemic species dominate reef fish interaction networks on two isolated oceanic islands	4
Molecular detection and microbiome differentiation of two cryptic lineages of giant barrel sponges from Conch Reef, Florida Keys	4
Highly diverse and geographically differentiated Symbiodiniaceae communities associated with the hydrocoral Millepora alcicornis in the Atlantic Ocean	4
The Fourth Global Coral Bleaching Event: Where do we go from here?	4
Composition and structure of tropical intertidal hard coral communities on natural and man-made habitats	4
Carbonate budgets in Lakshadweep Archipelago bear the signature of local impacts and global climate disturbances	4
Thylakoid fatty acid composition and response to short-term cold and heat stress in high-latitude Symbiodiniaceae	4
Coral-killing sponge Terpios hoshinota releases larvae at midnight	4
Canopy effects of octocoral communities on sedimentation: modern baffles on the shallow-water reefs of St. John, USVI	4
Ecological impacts of an invasive mesopredator do not differ from those of a native mesopredator: lionfish in Caribbean Panama	4
Porites astreoides coral populations demonstrate high clonality and connectivity in southeast Florida	4
Sterols, free fatty acids, and total fatty acid content in the massive Porites spp. corals cultured under different pCO2 and temperature treatments	4
Decadal stability of coral reef benthic communities on Palmyra Atoll, central Pacific, through two bleaching events	4
Coarser taxonomic resolutions are informative in revealing fish community abundance trends for the world’s warmest coral reefs	4
Long-term physiological responses to combined ocean acidification and warming show energetic trade-offs in an asterinid starfish	4
Preferential consumption of benthic cyanobacterial mats by Caribbean parrotfishes	4
3D photogrammetry improves measurement of growth and biodiversity patterns in branching corals	4
Cryptofaunal diversity in fringing reef rhodoliths	4
Estimating rates of coral carbonate production from aerial and archive imagery by applying colony scale conversion metrics	4
Responses of benthic habitat and fish to severe tropical cyclone Winston in Fiji	4
Genomic assessment of an endemic Hawaiian surgeonfish, Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis, reveals high levels of connectivity and fine-scale population structure	4
Asexual reproduction in bad times? The case of Cladocora caespitosa in the eastern Mediterranean Sea	4
Heat, human, hydrodynamic, and habitat drivers measured from space correlate with metrics of reef health across the South Pacific	4
Promoting larval settlement of coral Pocillopora damicornis by calcium	4
Photosynthetically stimulated bioerosion in symbiotic sponges: the role of glycerol and oxygen	4
The synergistic negative effects of combined acidification and warming on the coral host and its symbiotic association with Symbiodiniaceae indicated by RNA-Seq differential expression analysis	3
Confronting the ‘nocturnal problem’ in coral reefs: sleeping site selection and cocoon formation in parrotfishes	3
Anomalous δ18O signal in a giant clam shell (Tridacna maxima) from the Lakshadweep Archipelago, India: signature of thermal stress during a coral bleaching event	3
Timing of final oocyte maturation in Acropora and merulinid corals	3
Love thy prickly neighbor? Sea urchin density affects risk assessment in damselfish	3
Demographic recovery of corals at a wave-exposed reef following catastrophic disturbance	3
Priority coral conservation areas under global warming in the Amami Islands, Southern Japan	3
A carbon cycling model shows strong control of seasonality and importance of sponges on the functioning of a northern Red Sea coral reef	3
Growth responses of mixotrophic giant clams on nearshore turbid coral reefs	3
Impacts of recurrent culling of invasive lionfish on mesophotic reefs in Bermuda	3
Simple larvae sustain the world’s smallest marine vertebrates	3
Dinoflagellate-targeted PCR reveals highly abundant and diverse communities of parasitic dinoflagellates in and near Zhubi Reef, South China Sea	3
Linear extension, skeletal density, and calcification rates of the blue coral Heliopora coerulea	3
Unprecedented erosion of Mussismilia harttii, a major reef-building species in the Southwestern Atlantic, after the 2019 bleaching event	3
How does warmer sea water change the sensitivity of a Mediterranean thermophilic coral after immune-stimulation?	3
Antarctic deep-sea coral larvae may be resistant to end-century ocean warming	3
Impacts of ocean warming on the settlement success and post-settlement survival of Pacific crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster cf. solaris)	3
Symbiodiniaceae conduct under natural bleaching stress during advanced gametogenesis stages of a mesophotic coral	3
Effects of social organization on the feeding of the striped parrotfish, Scarus iseri	3
Same but different? Zoantharian assemblages (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) in Bonaire and Curaçao, southern Caribbean	3
Macroalgae and zoanthids require physical contact to harm corals in Southwestern Atlantic	3
Protracted recovery of long-spined urchin (Diadema antillarum) in the Bahamas	3
Ten years of dynamic co-management of a multi-species reef fishery	3
Reconciling slow linear growth and equivocal competitive ability with rapid spread of peyssonnelid algae in the Caribbean	3
Jeju Island: a sentinel for tracking ocean warming impacts on high-latitude benthic communities	3
Conservation of coral reef fishes: a field-hardy method to cryopreserve spermatogonial cells	3
Latitudinal variation in growth and survival of juvenile corals in the West and South Pacific	3
The giant clam Tridacna squamosa quickly regenerates iridocytes and restores symbiont quantity and phototrophic potential to above-control levels in the outer mantle after darkness-induced bleaching	3
Low light intensity increased survival of coral spat in aquaculture	3