African Journal of Ecology

Article	Citations
Issue Information	25
Unravelling the dynamics: Large mammal occupancy modelling in a West African tropical forest	17
Native forest regeneration and eucalyptus plantations in the Malagasy Highland	15
Environmental Factors Influencing Anthrax Distribution in an East African Protected Area	15
Breeding success related to clutch size in colonially nesting white stork (Ciconia ciconia) in the wetlands of Guerbes‐Sanhadja (NE Algeria)	14
Space use and movement patterns of elephants (Loxodonta africana) in an evergreen forest in central Mozambique	14
Inter‐habitat community variation of butterflies in an Afrotropical region	14
Genetic diversity of rodent species sold in South African pet shops	13
Leaf sponge tool use by Buraiga chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii, in Kibale National Park, Uganda	13
Early insights into the movements of Malawi’s transboundary elephants	13
A review of the ecological knowledge on the species Batrachoides liberiensis in estuarine and lagoon environments of West Africa	13
An assessment of avian species sold in the South African pet trade	12
Monitoring sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii) populations using camera traps	12
Spatial Modelling of the Temporal Patterns and Intensity of Wire Snare Poaching and Predicting Land Cover Change Dynamics in a Semi‐Arid Protected Area	11
Effects of environmental factors on the distribution of flagship species in Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Kumawu, Ghana: Implications for conservation and ecotourism development	11
Nesting habits of grey crowned craneBalearica regulorumin Lake Ol’ Bolossat basin, Kenya	11
Issue Information	11
Physiological stress in eastern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli) as influenced by their density, climatological variables and sexes	11
Effect of season, habitat type and anthropogenic pressure on the bird diversity in the vineyards agroecosystems in the region of Fes‐Meknes	10
Rapid development of individual identification and presence systems for a critically endangered antelope, the Mountain bongo	10
Demography and reproductive seasonality of small terrestrial mammals in two forest ecosystems in Ghana	10
Ecological risks and bio‐tolerance of Oreochromis niloticus to selected heavy metals in a tropical reservoir	10
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Wild Meat Value Chain Integration Systems: Opportunities for Value Chain Formalisation and Scaling in Africa	10
Long‐distance African wild dog dispersal within the Kavango‐Zambezi transfrontier conservation area	9

Assessment of Sentinel‐2A images for estimating rosemary land cover through an object‐based image analysis approach	9
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Exploring spatio‐temporal trends and environmental drivers of wildfire occurrence and impacts in Côte d'Ivoire, West Africa	9
Population limitation of a non‐ruminant in a nutrient‐poor ecosystem—predation rather than food	9
A Suite of Pathogens Detected in Ticks Sampled From Wildlife Hosts in Central Kenya	9
Habituation of large mammals to passing vehicles	9
Interannual Synchrony in the Post‐Breeding Migration Departure of Yellow‐Billed Kites (Milvus aegyptius) From a Roost Site in South Africa	9
Issue Information	9
Epi‐parasitic mistletoes don't parasitise their host's host and this supports the immunity hypothesis for host choice	8
Range extension of the agile mangabey (Cercocebus agilis) and of the mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx) in eastern Gabon evidenced by camera traps	8
Diversity and spatio‐temporal distribution of the myriapodofauna in four habitat types along an urban‐rural gradient in Douala (Littoral, Cameroon)	8
Anthropogenic linear features exhibit greater mammal activity relative to surrounding game trails in a woody savannah	8
Habitat selection by Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi): Conservation implications	8
Natural forest regeneration over a fallow age chronosequence in central African moist forests	8
Effects of lunar phase and temperature on bat activity and species richness at varying altitudes in the Kunene Region, Namibia	8
Seasonal variation in giraffe population density and abundance in the Tsavo landscape, Kenya	8
How Energetic Demands and Habitat Utilisation Can Make or Break Giraffes	8
Species richness and distribution of terrestrial ferns in tropical forest fragments in and around Kampala central, Uganda	8
Scaling the Slopes: A Biodiversity Assessment of the Communities of Epigeous Insects Across Mont Nimba's Altitudinal Gradient in Western Côte d'Ivoire	8
Assessing the status of leopard in the Cape Fold Mountains using a Bayesian spatial capture–recapture model in Just Another Gibbs Sampler	7
Ecological Change Resulting in an Apparent Increase of Marbled Tree Snakes, Dipsadoboa aulica , in a Shrub‐Encroached Wetland	7
Diversity, habitat and activity patterns of mesocarnivore assemblages in an Afrotropical protected forest savannah mosaic of Central Cameroon	7
Forest activities drive diversity and structure in the tropical rainforest	7
Remote Sensing That Makes Sense in Ecological Research—From Pixels to Conservation	7
Dynamics of land use land cover change in an East African inland valley wetland	7
Understanding Biodiversity in Togo: Unravelling Species Richness and Distribution Patterns in Tropical Ecosystems	7
Public Preferences for Forest Restoration in Togo	7
Temporal variability in food choice and availability for the semi‐captive critically endangered mountain bongo in the Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy	7
Pregnancy complications in wild vervet monkeys in an urban mosaic landscape	7
The Effects of Illegal Wildlife Activities on Biodiversity in Few Selected African Countries	7
Dung Beetles, Shifting Landscapes and the Ecology of Excrement in Southern Africa's Savannahs	7
Issue Information	7
Activity and nocturnal home range size of male common hippopotamus in Kruger National Park, South Africa	7
Dominance at the Dinner Table: Interspecific Competition Between Hyaenas and Jackals at Scavenging Sites	6
Fine‐scale variation in soil and topography influences herbaceous vegetation and the distribution of large mammalian herbivores	6
Fruiting phenology and diversity of native Ficus species in an urban‐forest mosaic landscape in KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa	6
Continued availability and sale of pangolins in a major urban bushmeat market in Cameroon despite national bans and the COVID‐19 outbreak	6
Impact of Individual Host Characteristics on Host Selection in Oxpeckers	6
Photographic evidence of predation on Cape dune mole‐rat (Bathyergus suillus) and rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) by African wildcat (Felis lybica cafra)	6
Issue Information	6
Modelling the Suitable Habitat of Gonimbrasia belina, a Communally Exploited Edible Insect, in Southern African Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) Savannah	6
Population size and conservation status of large terrestrial mammals in a West African protected area	6
Consumption of hyaena faeces and artificial mineral licks by leopard tortoises (Stigmochelys pardalis) in a low‐nutrient environment	6
The behaviour and fate of translocated bull African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) into a novel environment	6
Far From Roads, Challenges Arise: Unravelling Knowledge Gaps in the Occurrence of Cave‐Restricted Species on the African Continent	6
Probabilistic assessment of the risk of black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) species extinction	6
Diversity, Composition and Distribution Patterns of Spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) in Sand Forest, South Africa	5
Reassessing fossorial herpetofaunal density in sand forest following declines of mesoherbivore populations	5
Coupling paraecology and hunter GPS self‐follows to quantify village bushmeat hunting dynamics across the landscape scale	5
Habitat Preferences and Diversity Patterns of Saproxylic Beetles in Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems: A Case Study From the Edough Forest Massif in Northeastern Algeria	5

An Integrative Approach of Taxonomic, Morphometric and Ecological Research to Solve the Status of Cryptic Chelonian Taxa—A Case Study With Pelomedusa kobe in Rwanda	5
Three decades of land use and land cover changes in an East African lake and their implications for the conservation of bird communities	5
Cover Image	5
Standing fuel with back‐fires are effective in reducing fire hazardous in prescribed burning in the deciduous miombo woodland	5
Viability analysis of Kordofan giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum) in a protected area in Cameroon	5
Issue Information	5
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Giraffe productivity and calf survival in a savannah area outside an east African protected area: Implications for conservation	5
Small‐ and medium‐sized mammals of the Kafa Biosphere Reserve, Ethiopia	5
Corticolous lichen communities in Algerian climax forests	5
Promoting harmony between local people and wild animals around the Humbo Community Managed Forest area, southern Ethiopia	5
Issue Information	5
Little owls (Athene noctua) shift their diet towards nocturnal beetles in an arid North African area	5
Uncovering Cryptic Diversity: Camera Trap Insights Into the Effects of Seasonality and Anthropogenic Presence in a Mosaic Savannah Ecosystem	5
Seedling growth and spinescence of three Vachellia species' populations in valleys formed by tectonic uplift	5
Infanticide by male gelada leader and group counterstrategies	5
Searching priorities for a species at the brink of extinction: Threats analysis on the critically endangered Nubian Flapshell Turtle (Cyclanorbis elegans)	5
Corruption and poaching in Algeria	4
The Influence of Habitat Heterogeneity and Rainfall on Small Mammal Diversity and Reproduction in an Ethiopian Landscape	4
Diet composition and diurnal activity pattern of defassa waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa, Ruppell, 1835) in Maze National Park, Southern Ethiopia	4
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Spatial and Seasonal Patterns of African Savannah Elephant ( Loxodonta africana ) Habitat Use in a	4
Mapping the Ecological Niche of a Key West African Species: Terminalia leiocarpa	4
Carbon of Chaillu forests based on a phytosociological analysis in Republic of Congo, more than meets the eye?	4
Stacking and Burning Invasive Acacia saligna Trees in South African Fynbos: Can Native Plant Species Passively Recover?	4
Stakeholder perceptions of human–predator conflict in the South African fly‐fishing industry	4
Seasonal Variation and Species Richness of Epigeic Spiders in Macadamia Orchards, South Africa	4
Occupancy and abundance of a West African mangabey species (Cercocebus atysAudebert, 1797) in forest patch habitat	4
Herbaceous vegetation changes along a bush encroachment intensity gradient in a montane area	4
Faecal Analysis as an Indicator of the Dietary Quality Utilised by Free‐Roaming Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in the Free State Province, South Africa	4
Elephant Fences Result in Limited Impacts on Movement of Non‐Target Species	4
Human‐wildlife conflicts in communities bordering a Savannah‐Fenced wildlife conservancy	4
On the Occurrence of Pelusios gabonensis in the Taï National Park (Côte d'Ivoire)	4
Environmental sustainability in Africa: Insight into paper consumption by an African university	4
Teeth, tusks, and spikes: Repeated den sharing between predator and prey in an African Savannah	4
Distribution and threats to coconut crabs on Unguja, Zanzibar	4
Habitat degradation, vegetation damage, and wildlife‐livestock interactions in Amboseli ecosystem wildlife sanctuaries, Kenya	4
Morph frequencies, sex ratios and infections in Danaus chrysippus populations in Rwanda	4
Economic Growth, Governance and Endangered Species Conservation in Africa	4
In praise of commensalism	4
Identification, location and characterisation of spawning grounds and nurseries in the littoral zone of Lake Kivu (eastern DR Congo)	4
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Carcass Density, Size and Visibility Do Not Significantly Differ Between Areas With and Without Spotted‐Hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta), With Implications for Threatened Vultures	4
Visual Body Condition Scoring for Wild African Forest Elephants ( Loxodonta cyclotis )	4
Melanistic North African hedgehog Atelerix algirus (Lereboullet, 1842): First report case in Erinaceidae	4
Passive acoustic monitoring reveals behavioural response of African forest elephants to gunfire events	4
Local extirpation of woody species in Colophospermum mopane woodland under chronic utilisation by elephants	4
The Devils in the Details—but So Are the Angels: Linear Density Estimates of Harpagophytum zeyheri (Devil's Claw) From the Zambezi Region, Namibia	4
Combining offtake and participatory data to assess the sustainability of a hunting system in northern Congo	4
Results of a small terrestrial mammal survey in the remote Boé region of Guinea‐Bissau, with discovery of two new shrew records for the country	4
Lack of mitochondrial introgression and limited genetic connectivity among Manyara tilapia (Oreochromis amphimelas) populations in Tanzanian Saline Rift Valley Lakes	4
Timing of migration dates and detection of first wintering sites for the Turtle Dove in Northwest Africa	4
A Graphical Method for Analysing Species Assemblages Combining Habitat Preference and Abundance	4
Rocky outcrops form islands of high and unique tree biodiversity within an ocean of grass in Serengeti National Park	4
Identifying the Substrate and Vegetation Characteristics Driving Population Densities in the Buckspoor Spider, Seothyra schreineri	4
Cover Image	4
Horizontal differentiation in water chemistry, phytoplankton, zooplankton and macrozoobenthic communities in Lake Kwania	4
Population Patterns and Environmental Determinants of Warburgia ugandensis (Sprague) in Northern Tanzania	4
Issue Information	3
Ecological Restoration in Semi‐Arid Landscapes: Comparing Exclosures and Pasture for Vegetation, Soil Nutrients, and Carbon Stocks	3
Habitat Occupancy of Brown Hyaenas and Civets in a Multi‐Predator, Semi‐Arid Savanna Landscape	3
Assessment of the Spatial Pattern of Small Termite Mounds and Trees in Altered Lands in Benin (West Africa)	3
Varied plant species' responses to climate and environmental change on Mount Kenya after 40 years	3
Aggressive dominance of acacia floral resources by wild east African lowland honey bees	3
Monitoring spatiotemporal dynamics of large herbivores across an African rangeland using hierarchical multi‐species distance sampling	3
Gut Passage in Lemurs Enhances the Germination of Mistletoe Seeds Bakerella gonoclada, in a Madagascar Rainforest	3
Updated distribution of spotted hyaenas in Gabon reveals resident populations	3
An unusual ‘speckled’ puff adder Bitis arietans (Reptilia: Squamata) from central South Africa	3
Seasonal movement behaviour of large male elephant in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe	3
Illegal wildlife trade in Algeria, insight via online selling platforms	3
Camera traps reveal a large population of brown hyaena on a fenced reserve in southern Zimbabwe	3
Epauletted fruit bats prefer native plants and contribute to seed dispersal in a South African agricultural landscape	3
Kickboxing Kloof Frogs: Territoriality, Female Parental Care and Other Reproductive Behaviours of Natalobatrachus bonebergi	3
The Effect of Tree Spacing and Land Use History on Managing Wattle Rust Disease of Acacia mearnsii in Northwestern Ethiopia	3
Linking physico‐chemical parameters and macroinvertebrates for water quality assessment of Kakamega and the East Usambara montane ecosystems in Kenya	3
Influence of environmental factors on small mammal communities along an altitudinal gradient of Mount Rungwe in South Western Tanzania	3
Dietary Composition and Overlap Among Large Carnivores in Liwonde National Park, Malawi	3
Population structure and conservation of Cola nitida and Garcinia kola in a West African rainforest area	3
Diurnal activity budgets for the giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa, in the Kalahari region of southern Africa	3
Survey of non‐native small mammals traded in South Africa	3

Issue Information	3
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Using piospheres to identify, assess and monitor gradients of elephant impact on thicket	3
Community Structure and Species Diversity of Birds in Heterogenous Habitats of an East African Growing Agricultural Corridor	3
Biofluorescence and predator avoidance in the giraffe	3
The zebra as a grazer: Selectivity for grass consumption differs as grass availability varies	3
Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii) food sources and habitat use in Marsh–Savannah‐cultivation mosaics	3
A range’s core should not only be important in research	3
Short recce transects or camera trap surveys—Short recce surveys highlighted as a useful supplement for rapid biodiversity assessments in the Republic of the Congo	3
A lowland bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus eurycerus) recorded in Uganda	3
Cover Image	3
Age of Eucalyptus plantations differentially affects assemblages of surface‐active arthropods	3
Modelling the current and future distribution of Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb: Its implication for future conservation of the species in the Southern Benin	3
Does variation in plant diversity and abundance influence browsing intensity in black rhinos?	3
Rewriting the Unassessed, Discredited and Long‐Forgotten History of the Pygmy Hippopotamus in Guinea‐Bissau	3
Mitochondrial Genetic Diversity and Demographic History of Critically Endangered Oreochromis karongae (Trewavas, 1941) Along Lake Nyasa, Tanzania	3
DIY your captures when everything else fails: Description of an artisanal dart launcher with an assessment of the medium‐term response in a primate	3
Danger From the Sky? The Three‐Dimensional Landscape of Risk of Habituated Vervet Monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) From Aerial Predation	3
Index‐based large carnivore population density and abundance estimates for the Ruaha‐Rungwa conservation complex in Tanzania	2
Notes on Two, Inland and Island, Multi‐Species Heronries in the Northern Part of Nyerere National Park, Tanzania	2
Predictors of West African urban bird species richness and composition	2
Attitudes of people living near Rau Forest Reserve, Tanzania towards Mount Kilimanjaro black and white colobus monkeys (Colobus caudatus)	2
A survey of the distribution of the water rail Rallus aquaticus in Algeria and its first recorded breeding in the Algerian Sahara	2
Crash Course in Conservation: Predicting and Mitigating Wildlife–Vehicle Collisions in a Savannah Area	2
Innovative Geographic Information Science (GIS) and Remote Sensing Tools for Modelling the Ranging Behaviour and Habitat Dynamics of the African Savannah Elephant (Loxodonta africana	2
Climate‐Smart Agriculture and Human–Elephant Conflict in Southern Kenya: Intercropping With Use of a Metal Strip Deterrent Fence	2
Dynamics and determinants of human–hyaena conflicts in the surroundings of a protected area	2
Breeding and demographic aspects of Montemys delectorum, an East African endemic rodent	2
Future climate change projections in the agroecological, bioclimatic, biogeographical and altitudinal vegetation zones of Morocco	2
Population density and distribution of common warthog (Phacochoerus africanusGmelin, 1788) in Dabena Valley Forest, Western Ethiopia	2
Do Structural Traits Support Reliable Tree Species Classification in Savannas? Insights From Close‐Range Photogrammetry Data	2
Alpha and beta‐diversity and community structure of dung beetle assemblages in an East African protected savannah	2
Effect of Aspect and Elevation on the Degree of Aggregation and the Functional Traits in Phlomis floccosa D. Don (Lamiacae) Populations	2
Density of pied crows Corvus albus in two of South Africa’s protected areas	2
Anthropogenic risk increases night‐time activities and associations in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Ruaha‐Rungwa ecosystem, Tanzania	2
Community knowledge on factors behind extirpation of lion Panthera leo in Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (West Africa)	2
Status Update on the Critically Endangered Upemba Lechwe (Kobus anselli)	2
Activity and predation of the threatened pancake tortoise, Malacochersus tornieri	2
How to Make Your African Ecology Paper Stand Out to a Global Audience	2
Distribution, habitat use and human disturbance of gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) in the Ebo forest, Littoral Region, Cameroon	2
Habitat fragmentation increases genetic distance between fruit bat subpopulations	2
Variability in Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. Traits Along an Aridity Gradient Provides Insights Into Its Adaptation to Dry Environmental Conditions	2
Local community attitudes and perceptions towards benefits and challenges associated with biodiversity conservation in Blouberg Nature Reserve, South Africa	2
Continuous Monitoring of Vegetation and Soil Recovery After Eucalyptus grandis Removal in Dense Trees and Shrubs Areas	2
Predicting the Dry Season Habitat Occupancy of African Savannah Elephant Using Vegetation Indices and Modelling Landscape Variability in a Mesic Protected Area	2
The effect of insects on elephant‐induced tree damage within a small, fenced reserve in South Africa	2
Community forests as beacons of conservation: Enabling local populations monitor their biodiversity	2
Diversity patterns of ants and termites in forest‐savanna mosaic habitats in two protected areas of Cameroon	2
Five small antelope species diets indicate different levels of anthrodependence in the Overberg Renosterveld, South Africa	2
Willingness to Pay for Forest Restoration in Togo: Comparison of Estimates From Choice Experiment, Contingent Valuation and Travel Cost Methods	2
Non‐fatal removal of ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii Smuts, 1832) tracking devices by predators	2
Note on the small mammals of small, isolated forest patches in the Eastern Cape, South Africa	2
Habitat suitability and dispersal of invasive Striga species under climate change in Africa	2
Effects of vineyard management, herbaceous cover and vine plant characteristics on bird diversity in a North African agroecosystem	2
Diversity and distribution of Fruit‐feeding butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda	2
Impact of end‐of‐century climate change on priority non‐timber forest product species across tropical Africa	2
Pine plantations and native forest fragments adjacent to intact forests provide surrogate habitats for birds in an Afrotropical forest landscape	2
Zoogeographic regionalisation of terrestrial vertebrates of Mozambique	2
Issue Information	2
High Mammal Diversity and Flagship Species Persist Under Community Conservation in a Forest‐Savannah Transition Zone in Central Cameroon	2
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Effects of Acacia dealbata Invasion and Removal on Soil and Vegetation in Communal Grasslands in E	2
Comparability of radar and optical methods in identifying surface water in a semi‐arid protected area	2
The Influence of Bush Encroachment on the Abundance and Species Richness of Rodents in a Mesic Savanna	2
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Longitudinal patterns of abundance, diversity and functional feeding guilds of benthic communities in East African tropical high‐altitude streams	2
Threatening the endangered: Uncovering endangered elasmobranchs and factors perpetuating the Tanzanian shark‐fin trade	2
Space use by African savannah elephants in an arid protected area dominated by a mosaic of different vegetation	2
Interviews in ecology and conservation biology: A hidden treasure for the African ecologist	2
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Species composition, abundance and habitat association of non‐volant small mammals in Gibe Sheleko National Park, southwestern Ethiopia	2
Preliminary population estimate of Kordofan giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum) in two areas of the Benoué complex, Cameroon	2
Issue Information	2
Interspecific nest reuse between two species of waders in northern Sahara and an overview of records of mixed clutches in Algerian waterbirds	2
Utilisation of Anthropogenic Landscapes by Bird Communities in West African Drylands	2
Nutrient Composition of Natural Diet Items and Faeces in Free‐Ranging Southern Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa): A Pilot Study	2
Eco‐parcel: An approach to identify and describe attractions to support adapting nature‐based tourism destinations to climate‐change impacts	2
Unravelling the Influence of Coastal Pollution on Sea Turtle Habitat Use in Delta State, Nigeria	2
Feathered Frontiers: How Land‐Use Changes Shape Diversity of Bird Communities in an East African Global Biodiversity Hotspot	2
Distribution parameters of large mammals and conservation management in an Afrotropical forest landscape and biodiversity hotspot	2
Transcending borders: Remarkable genetic homogeneity among Barred mudskipper (Periophthalmus argentilineatus) populations in the southwestern Indian Ocean	2
Monitoring human disturbance: Factors affecting escape behaviour of waterbirds in North African wetlands	2
Population Trends of Large Carnivores in the Benoue Ecosystem, a Savannah Landscape of Central Africa (Cameroon)	2
Preliminary Evidence of Great Apes' Occurrence in Peri‐Urban and Highly Degraded Forest Reserves in Cameroon	2
Seasonal Habitat Shifts and Wetland Dependence of Grey Crowned Crane in Urbanising Kenya	2
Decline in whistling rat (Parotomys brantsii) density: Possible response to climate change in the Karoo, South Africa	1
Diversity, distribution and regional conservation status of the Egyptian tree flora	1
Understanding fire intensity in the Sudanian savannah of Western Africa: Implications for sustainable fire management	1
Differential performance of selected Sudano‐Sahelian plant species for ecological restoration	1
Relation between ground‐dwelling and arboreal ant diversity in three vegetation types in the humid forest zone of southern Cameroon	1
Edge Influence on Avian Assemblages in an Isolated Tropical Coastal Forest Reserve, Tanzania	1
Camera Trapping to Assess Diversity, Habitat Use and Activity Patterns of Mammals in a Tropical Hotspot Area	1
Composition and structure of woody plant communities as a function of altitude and human degradation in Afromontane moist evergreen forests SW Ethiopia	1
Okapi Survival Threats: A Population Reconstruction and Threat Analysis	1
Seasonality of Pemba flying fox (Pteropus voeltzkowi) in selected habitats of Pemba Island, and its roles in seed dispersal and germination	1